One of the most important factors limiting the applications of holographic interferometry for measurements of nanometer-scale surface motions is the sensitivity of a holographic interferometer an assessment of which will be given below.

The operation principle of a holographic interferometer is as follows. Laser radiation is split into the object beam which illuminates the object and the reference beam directed to the input sensor of the digital video camera. The object beam illuminates the object in the direction k_i. The portion of light reflected by the object in the direction k_v referred to as the observation direction passes through an optical focusing system and forms an image of the object at the input sensor of the camera. An image domain hologram forms on the CCD matrix of the digital camera as a result of interference between the reference and object beams.

Let R (x, y) be the flat reference wave and U (x, y) the object reflected wave. Then the intensity at the CCD matrix can be described as follows [10]:

I _H(x, y) = |R_H(x, y)|² + |U_H(x, y)|² +

R _H(x, y)U^*_H(x, y) + R^*_H(x, y)U_H(x, y), (1)

where H is the hologram plane index and * is the complex conjugation index. The intensity described by Eq. (1) is detected by a 2D electronic device incorporating multiple arrays of sensitive cells (M × N pixels) having the size ∆x × ∆y, thus allowing one to describe the intensity in the form of the function I_H(m×x, n×y) where m и n are integers. The last two terms of Eq. (1) contain information on the amplitude and phase of the object wave. This information can be separated by means of spatial filtering using Fourier transform [11]. Fourier transform of the detected array allows separating and filtering one of the last two terms in Eq. (1). These terms are separated in the Fourier plane by slight tilting of the reference beam relative to the object one. Filtering and inverse Fourier transformation yield the complex amplitude of the object wavefront. The digital complex amplitude U_H(m∆x, n∆y) can be used for calculating the phase of the object wavefront:

${\phi }_{\mathrm{H}}(m\Delta x,n\Delta y)=arctg\frac{Im\left[U_{\mathrm{H}}(m\Delta x,n\Delta y)\right]}{Re\left[U_{\mathrm{H}}(m\Delta x,n\Delta y)\right]}$ (2)

where Re and Im are the real and imaginary parts of the complex number, respectively. Deduction of the phases of the object fields calculated for two states of the object get the phase difference from which once can calculated the shift of the points of the object u in the direction s resulting from the application of a load:

$\Delta \phi =\frac{2\pi }{\lambda }\mathbf{us}$ (3)

where λ is the laser wavelength, s is the interferometer sensitivity vector described as s = ki – kv and ki and kv are the unit vectors of the illumination and observation directions, respectively.

It follows from Eq. (3) that the maximum system sensitivity to motions in the surface normal direction (which are the case for SAW) is achieved if the illumination and observation directions are normal to the surface (|s| = 2). Each fringe in the interference pattern has the value λ/2, where λ is the laser wavelength, and this value determines the sensitivity of the interferometer (in the optical region this is 350–200 nm per fringe). If the surface motion range is within λ/2 no fringes form in the interference pattern but the phase distribution in the object waves of two holograms and their phase difference can be calculated from the information derived from discrete pixels of the CCD matrix. The limit sensitivity in this case is determined by the minimum surface shift in the direction of the interferometer sensitivity vector which causes a response of the measuring system.

As follows from Eq. (3) the sensitivity of the holography method is inversely proportional to the laser wavelength used for hologram writing which is well-known for high accuracy (to within the spectral width which is of the order of tens of femtoseconds for holographic lasers). However knowing this fact alone does not allow judging about the minimum dimension of the detected motions.

The basic factor determining the limit sensitivity of a specific design of a holographic measuring system is the resolution of the measuring system which contains multiple components, including the recording CCD matrix, the circuitry and the software. If holograms are recorded and processed with 8-bit digital devices and software the measuring system will finally provide for a 256-grade division of the maximum surface shift magnitude W_max calculated from the interference pattern, so the value of each grade is as follows:

$\Delta W=\frac{W_{\max }}{256}$ (4)

Then the measurement data (motion field) are represented as a discrete function of two variables W = F (m∆x, n∆y), where ∆x and ∆y are the pixel dimensions in the image and m and n describe the sequence number of a pixel in each of the axes. The value of the function W is constant within each pixel and is a multiple of ∆W. It follows from Eq. (4) that with a decrease in the overall magnitude of object shift the value of the grade ∆W decreases and becomes the smallest if the interference pattern contains one fringe. As shown above if the optical setup of the interferometer has normal illumination and observation directions the value of one interference fringe is λ/2. Thence the value of one grade or the minimum surface shift magnitude that can be detected by the system (a change to the next grade) can be calculated for this case as follows:

$\Delta W_{\min }=\frac{0,5\lambda }{256}$ (5)

Due to the specific features of the data digitalization systems used in most experimental instruments the value of one grade calculated with Eq. (5) remains the same regardless of further decrease in the overall shift in the interference pattern (to within portions of a fringe). Thus motions that are smaller in magnitude than the values calculated above will not cause any response of the measuring system. Therefore these values can be accepted as the limit resolution of the measuring system for a specific laser wavelength. It follows from Eq. (5) that the theoretical limit sensitivity of the method for hologram recording with ultraviolet radiation is less than 1 nm. However Eq. (1) does not allow for speckle noise generated by coherent light reflection from surfaces of diffuse reflecting objects. In practice the abovementioned limit sensitivity is only achievable for measurement of motions of objects with mirror surfaces that do not produce high-frequency speckle-structure in the reflected object wave.

Another most important factor limiting the use of holographic interferometry for studies of dynamic processes is the frequency of test object surface oscillations. There are publictions on the application of holographic interferometry for measurement of oscillations at up to 100 kHz frequencies [12]. Data on holographic visualization or measurement of higher frequency oscillations are unavailable.

Double-exposure interferometry of an oscillating object incorporates recording and interferometric comparison between two holograms one of which is taken for the specimen in rest and the other is recorded after oscillations were generated in the specimen. A most important factor determining the fringe contrast and the measurability of the oscillations is the on-off time ratio k described as follows:

$k=\frac{T}{t}$(6)

where T is the object surface oscillation period and t is the exposure time (hologram recording time).

It is well-known that in order for a double-exposure interference pattern of an oscillating surface to become recordable at an oscillation amplitude that is equal to or smaller than the laser wavelength, the on-off time ratio should be at least 10. For standing waves exposure should be synchronized with the onset of surface oscillation phase [13].

The exposure time of CCD matrices in conventional holographic interferometers with cw laser irradiation [14] is software-set to within 1/15–1/20000 s, i.e., k = 10 can be provided for oscillation frequencies of within 2 kHz. Using these systems for measurements of object surface oscillations at frequencies typical of SAW (up to 1 GHz) will make the on-off time ratio far smaller than one.

At k << 1 the object wave intensity is averaged over oscillating object exposure time [15, 16, 17]. Comparing this hologram with one taken in rest produces the so-called quasi-binary interference pattern [18] which does not allow visualization and parameter measurement of oscillations with amplitudes of less than λ/2 since the interference pattern will not show the respective intensity gradient.

Thus theoretical analysis results in a conventional holographic interferometer does not allow visualization and parameter measurement of oscillations at MHz frequencies due to its long exposure time. To provide for the required on-off time ratio at oscillation frequencies of up to 1 GHz (oscillation period 1 ns) the exposure time should be within 100 ps.

Accepting that SAW-caused motions (deformations) of object surface generate small phase fluctuations of the reflected light wave in one direction one can assume that the interference pattern of specimen surface oscillations will be in the form of a system of parallel low-contrast fringes perpendicular to the SAW propagation direction. If the hologram is recorded with an 1× magnification optical system the phase gradient period in the interference pattern (fringe step) will be equal to the SAW wavelength.

Since holograms are written with CCD matrices the unit resolution will be determined by the CCD matrix pixel size which is at least 5 µm for conventional high resolution cameras.

Basically, to allow recording an interference pattern onto a CCD matrix the division step (pixel size) should be at least 2 times smaller than the fringe step in the interference pattern [10].

One can easily calculate that for a 4000 mps sound velocity in a lithium niobate crystal this criterion is met for SAW frequencies of up to 400 MHz at which there are 2 pixels per wavelength. At higher frequencies the Nyquist criterion is not met. Furthermore the too small number of pixels per wavelength for SAW frequencies of 10–400 MHz is obviously insufficient for plotting a smooth envelope curve of oscillation motions which is a decisive factor in measurements of wave parameters (wavelength and amplitude). Therefore measuring the parameters of high-frequency SAW requires image magnification at CCD matrix input.

It is also noteworthy that measuring oscillation motion fields for SAW is in fact a self-contradictory task. For example, whereas visualization of a SAW across the entire specimen surface requires the largest observation zone available be provided (minimum image magnification), achieving the highest accuracy of SAW parameter measurements requires maximum magnification thus narrowing the object surface area taken within one exposure time.

To overcome this contradiction and provide for the maximum adaptability of the measuring system one can use a combined two-step image magnification system.

1. Optical image magnification upon hologram recording at CCD matrix input with the magnification factor being adjustable in a range of 2×–10×. This will, on the one hand, provide SAW visualization over the maximum available surface area and, on the other hand, acquire a sufficient array of data for further SAW parameter measurements.
2. Computer image scaling with an up to 20× factor allowing the operator to select, magnify and process an interference pattern of interest after SAW visualization to achieve maximum accuracy of SAW parameters (wavelength and amplitude) in any specimen surface area as may be required.

The parameters of the optical system were selected experimentally with the criterion of optimum hologram recording conditions. SAW were excited by sending an electric signal from the high-frequency generator to the IDT D1. Resonance was tuned by the maximum signal magnitude read by the oscilloscope connected to the IDT D2. The resonance frequency measured was f₀ = 17 MHz. Two conventional measuring devices were used (a Tektronix TDS 303 2B oscilloscope and G3-19A and G-102A generators).

In rest (without load) holograms were recorded using a 50 ps pulse laser at λ₃ = 0.354 µm. The subsequent series of holograms in excited state at the resonance frequency were recorded with 5–30 s intervals between exposures. Loaded specimen holograms for each measurement area (Fig. 1) were recorded in excited state at the resonance frequency at 10–15 V in two modes:

• IDTs D2–D8 shorted (SC mode);
• IDTs D2–D8 under 50 Ohm matching load.

To record interference patterns in all the measurement areas shown in Fig. 1 we moved the specimen in its plane with a precision XY moving platform after recording each series of holograms at a selected area, and then recorded holograms for the next area.

The interference patterns were recorded with special hologram processing software providing interference comparison of two holograms and subsequent motion field calculation. The holograms being compared were one for an in-rest object and the other for an excited object.

Aimed at analyzing the overall SAW propagation pattern on the specimen surface.

Figure 3.

Visualization of SAW on specimen surface.